Since time immemorial, people have gathered plant and animal resources for their needs. Examples include edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices, gums, game, fodder, fibres used for construction of shelter and housing, clothing or utensils, and plant or animal products for medicinal, cosmetic or cultural uses. Even today, hundreds of millions of people, mostly in developing countries, derive a significant part of their subsistence needs and income from gathered plant and animal products (Iqbal 1993; Walter 2001). Gathering of high-value products such as mushrooms (morels, matsutake, truffles), medicinal plants (ginseng, black cohosh, goldenseal) 76 U. Schippmann et al. also continues in developed countries for cultural and economic reasons (Jones et al. 2002). Among these uses, medicinal plants play a central role, not only as traditional medicines used in many cultures but also as trade commodities that meet the demand of often distant markets.

For the purpose of this paper the term ‘medicinal and aromatic plants’ (MAP) is defined to cover the whole range of plants used not only medicinally sensustric to but also in the neighboring and often overlapping fields of condiments, food and cosmetics. Demand for a wide variety of wild species is increasing with growth in human needs, numbers and commercial trade. With the increased realization that some wild species are being over-exploited, a number of agencies are recommending that wild species be brought into cultivation systems (BAH 2004; Lambert et al. 1997; WHO 1993). Cultivation can also have conservation impacts, however, and these need to be better understood. Medicinal plant production through cultivation, for example, can reduce the extent to which wild populations are harvested, but it also may lead to environmental degradation and loss of genetic diversity as well as loss of incentives to conserve wild populations (Assessing the impacts of commercial captive breeding and artificial propagation on wild species conservation, IUCN/SSC Workshop, 7-9.12.2001, Jacksonville. Draft workshop report 2002). The relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species is an interesting topic with implications for local communities, public and private land owners and managers, entire industries and, of course, wild species. Identifying the conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems for MAP should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery, or both (Boedker et al. 1997; Schippmann et al. 2002; Schippmann et al. 2005).¹ Page no.75-76.

The crude drugs which reach the market and pharmaceutical industries will have passed through different stages that have some effect in the nature and number of active constituents responsible for therapeutic activity. Those stages are to be concerned more in order to make a drug useful to the mankind by all means. This chapter concerns regarding such parameters which has some effect over plants. Cultivation produces improved quality of plants. It helps in selecting the species, varieties or hybrids that have the desired phytoconstituents due to the controlled environmental growth better plant product is obtained and makes the collection and processing steps easier when compared to wild sources. Cultivation results in obtaining plants with maximum secondary metabolites. It leads to industrialization in the country by the regular supply of plants. Serves as a useful tool for research purposes. The advantages of cultivation may be briefly summarized as follows:

1. It ensures quality and purity of medicinal plants. Crude drugs derive their utility from chemical contents in them. If uniformity is maintained in all operations during the process of cultivation, drugs of highest quality can be obtained. Cultivation of rhizomes demands an adequate quantity of fertilizers and proper irrigation. Systematic cultivation results in raising a crop with maximum content of volatile oil and other constituents. The examples of ginger, turmeric and liquorice can be cited to illustrate this point. If the cultivated plants are kept free of weeds, the contamination of crude drugs can be conveniently avoided.

2. Collection of crude drugs from cultivated plants gives a better yield and therapeutic quality. However, it is a skilled operation and requires some professional excellence, if the collection of crude drugs for market is done from cultivated plants by skilled and well experienced personnel, the high yield and therapeutic quality of drugs can be maintained. For example, collection of latex from poppy capsules and oleo-resins from Pinus species, if done by experienced persons, can result in better yield of crude drugs. Preservation of green colour of senna leaves and minimizing the deterioration of cardiac glycosides in freshly collected leaves of digitalis can be achieved only by highly skilled labour.

3. Cultivation ensures regular supply of a crude drug. In other words, cultivation is a method of crop-planning. Planning a crop cultivation regularizes its supply and as a result the industries depending upon crude drugs do not face problem of shortage of raw material.

4. The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants also leads to industrialization to a greater extent. The cultivation of coffee and cocoa in Kerala has given rise to several cottage and small-scale industries. The cultivation of cinchona in West Bengal has led to the establishment of the cinchona-alkaloid factory near Darjeeling. The government owned opium factory at Ghaziabad is an eloquent testimony to the significance of well-planned cultivation of poppy.

5. Cultivation permits application of modern technological aspects such as mutation, polyploidy and hybridization. The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops provides a sustainable means of natural source of high value industrial raw material for pharmaceutical, agrichemical, food and cosmetic industries and opens up new possibilities for higher level of gains for farmers with a significant scope for progress in rural economy. Though these plants have been known and used since ancient times to heal and cure diseases, recently, technological advancements and validation of traditional knowledge and usage are leading to consumer inclination towards naturals and high market value for these crops. Such crops in India now covering an area of merely about 0.4 million hectares are finding a much higher place in international Agri- business with an estimated annual growth rate of 10-15 per cent.²

General aspects involved in cultivation of medicinal plants:

Factors affecting the cultivation of crude drugs:

1. Altitude:

Altitude is a very important factor in cultivation of medicinal plants. The following are the examples of medicinal and aromatic plants indicating the altitude for their successful cultivation.

Table -1 Altitude for Drug Cultivation.

PLANT	ALTITUDE(Meter)
1.Tea	1,000 - 1500
2.Cinchona	1,000 - 2000

2. TEMPERATURE:

Many plants will grow in temperate regions during summer, but they lack the resistance to withstand frost in winter. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by change in temperature. The rate of respiration increased with increase in temperature.

PLANT	TEMPERATURE (°F )
1.Cinchona	60 - 75
2.Coffee	55 - 70

3. RAINFALL OR IRRIGATION:

Except the xerophytes most other plants need water and proper irrigation and sufficient rainfall for their development. The minerals in the soil get dissolved in water and are then absorbed by plants water influences morphological and physiology of plants. E.g., Continuous rain can lead to a loss of water – soluble substance from leaves and root by leaching.

4. SOIL:

Soil provides mechanical support, water and essential foods for the development of plants. It consists of air, water, mineral matter and organic matters. The plants are able to determine their own soil pH range for their growth. Nitrogen containing soil has a great useful for raising the production of alkaloids in some plants.

PARTICLE SIZE(Diameter)	TYPE OF SOIL
1.Less than 0.002 mm	Fine Clay
2.0.002 – 0.02 mm	Coarse Clay
3.0.02 -0.2 mm	Fine Sand
4.0.2 – 2.0 mm	Coarse Sand

5. SOILFERTILITY:

It is the capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in balanced proportion to plants. It is also diminished through leaching and erosion. Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of animal manures, nitrogen fixing bacteria or by application of chemical fertilizers.

6. PEST AND PEST CONTROL:

Pest is an undesired animal or plant which causes loss of cultivated plants. The different types of pests infecting medicinal plants are as follows: 1. Fungi/Viruses 2. Insects 3. Weeds 4. Non insects’ pests. Different techniques are followed to achieve pest control effectively. These methods are discussed as follows: Mechanical Method, Agricultural Method, Biological Method, Chemical Method.³

Post – harvesting technology of medicinal and aromatic plants:

1. Harvesting:

Harvesting is an important operation in cultivation technology, as it reflects upon economic aspects of the crude drugs. The harvesting of crude drugs depends upon the type of drug to be harvested and the pharmacopeial standards which it needs to achieve. Harvesting can be done efficiently in every respect by the skilled workers. The underground drugs like roots, rhizomes, tubers, etc. are harvested by mechanical devices, such as diggers or lifters. The tubers or roots are thoroughly washed in water to get of earthy-matter.

Example: Flowers, seeds and small fruits are harvested by a special device known as seed stripper.

2. Drying:

This processing includes several operations or treatments, depending upon the source of the crude drugs and its chemical nature. Drying consists of removal of sufficient moisture content of crude drugs, so as to improve its quality and make it resistant to the growth of microorganisms. Drying inhibits partially enzymatic reactions. In certain drugs, some special methods are required to be followed to attain specific standards. The slicing and cutting into smaller pieces are done to enhance drying. The slicing and cutting into smaller pieces are done to enhance drying, as in case of glycyrrhiza. The flowers are dried in shade so as to retain their colour and volatile oil content. Methods of drying are Natural Drying. and Artificial Drying. In the Natural Drying there are somany methods Shed Drying, Direct sun Drying and Artificial Dryings are Tray Dryers, Vacuum dryers, Spray dryers.

3. Garbling:

This process is desired when sand, dirt and foreign organic parts of the same plant, not constituting drug are required to be removed. If the extraneous matter is permitted in crude drugs, the quality of drug surfers and at times, it does not pass pharmacopeial limit.

4. Packing:

The morphological and chemical nature of drug, its ultimate use and effects of climatic conditions during transportation and storage should be taken into consideration while packing the drugs. Examples: Aloe is packed in goat skin. The drugs which are very sensitive to moisture and also costly at the same time.

5. Storage:

Preservation of crude drugs needs sound knowledge of their physical and chemical properties. All the drugs should be preserved in well closed and possibly in the filled containers. They should be stored in the premises which are water proof, fire proof and rodent proof. Temperature is also very important factor in preservation of the drugs, as it accelerates several chemical reactions leading to decomposition of the constituents.

6. Current good agricultural practices:

Good Agricultural Practice:

(GAP) is a set of standards for the safe and sustainable production of crops. It aims to help farm owners maximize yields and minimizing production costs and environmental impact. The various stages of processing which are included in Good Agricultural Practices are described as follows:

1. Seeds and propagation material.

2. Cultivation.

3. Soil and Fertilization.

4. Irrigation.

5. Crop maintenance.

6. Harvesting.

7. Primary processing.

8. Packaging.

9. Storage and transport.

10. Staff requirements.

11. Documentation.

12. Quality Assurance.⁴

CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS:

Medicinal plants are globally valuable sources of new drugs. Conservation is the process of management of the biosphere in order to obtain the greatest benefit for the present generation and maintain the potential for the future.

· Need for conservation of medicinal plants:

To meet the requirements of expanding regional and international markets healthcare products and needs of growing populations, large quantities of medicinal plants are harvested from forest. As a result, the natural sources are rapidly depleting. o Hence there is a need for conservation, cultivation, maintenance for future use.

1. In situ Conservation:

In Situ or site conservation involves maintaining genetic resources in their natural habitats i.e., within the ecosystem to which it is adapted, whether as wild or crop cultivar in farmers field as components of the traditional agricultural system. Successful in situ conservation depends on rules, regulations and potential compliance of medicinal plants within growth habitats.

Natural Reserves:

The degradation and destruction of habitats is a major cause of the loss of medicinal plant resources. Natural reserves are protected areas of important wild resources created to preserve and restore biodiversity. Around the world, more than 12,700 Protected. Conserving medicinal plants by protecting key natural habitats requires assessing the contributions and ecosystem functions of individual habitats.

Wild Nurseries:

Wild nurseries can provide a effective approach for in situ conservation of medicinal plants that are endemic, endangered and in demand.

2. Ex–situ Conservation:

Ex-Situ Conservation, involves conservation of biodiversity outside the native or natural habitat where the genetic variation is maintained away from its original location. The Ex-Situ genetic conservation fulfils the requirement of present or future economic, social and environmental needs. Conservation also includes propagation and assessment of molecular diversity.⁵

Methods of improving quality of crops and their application:

1. Plant Breeding:

Plant breeding can be defined as an art and science and technology of improving the genetic makeup of plants in relation to their economic use for mankind. Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics.

2. Chemodemes:

Chemodemes are regarded as a group of plants of a species which have identical morphological characters, but differ in their chemical nature. The chemical characters of chemodemes are hereditary. The observation of chemodemes can be confirmed only by growing different plants of a species in identical conditions, preferably from the seeds for many generations.

3. Hybridization:

The production of a hybrid by crossing two individuals of unlike genetic constitution is known as hybridization. The natural or artificial process that results in the formation of hybrid is known as hybridization. Hybridization does not change genetic contents of organisms but it produces new combinations of genes.

Types of Hybridization:

1. Intervarietal Hybridization

2. Distant

Hybridization o Emasculation, Bagging, Tagging is the process of Hybridization.

4. Mutation:

Mutation is defined as the permanent and relatively rare change in the number or sequence of nucleotides. In other words, mutations arise due to change in DNA bases. Transition: change in the nucleotide may involve replacement of one pyrimidine by another pyrimidine or one purine by another purine, known as Transition. Transversion: A change in the nucleotides involves substitution of a purine by pyrimidine.

5. Polyploidy:

If a cell contains more than two paired cells of chromosomes are polyploid E.g., Triploid,

Tetraploid. It is condition in which cell contain more than two genomes.

Types: 1. Spontaneous Polyploidy: - It is Natural Method.

2.Induced Polyploidy: - It is an Artificial Method.⁶

Role of medicinal plants in national economy:

· Ginger:

Synonyms_:Zingiber, Zingibers, Sunthi.

Family_:Zingiberaceae.

Biological Source:

Ginger consists of whole or cut, dried scrapped or unscrapped rhizomes of Zingiber officinale Roscoe, family Zingiberaceae. It contains not less than 0.8 per cent of total gingerols on dried basis.

Geographical Source:

It is said to be native of South East Asia, but is cultivated in Caribbean islands, Africa, Australia, Mauritius, Jamaica, Taiwan and India. More than 35 per cent worlds production is form India.

Macroscopic Characters:

Colour – Externally, it is buff coloured.

Odour – Agreeable and aromatic.

Taste – Agreeable and pungent.

Size– Rhizomes of ginger are about 5-15 x 1.5-6.5 cm.

Shape – The rhizomes are laterally compressed, bearing short flat, ovate and oblique branches on the upper side, with bud at the apex. Fracture – Short and fibrous.

Extra Feature:

Longitudinal striations and the occasional projecting fibres are present on the surface of ginger. Transversely cut surface shows well marked endodermis and stele.

Microscopic Characters:

Cork consists of irregularly arranged cells, followed by Cortex. Cortex is made up of thin-walled parenchymatous tissue. Well-marked endodermis distinguishes the stele and the cortex. Cortical tissue encloses several closed collaterals fibro-vascular bundles. Vascular bundles just inside the endodermis are free of fibres. Oleoresinous cells and starch grains are found throughout the ground tissue. Endodermis is free of starch.

(a) Schematic diagram (T.S.) and,

(b) Transverse section of Ginger rhizome

Chemical Constituents:

Ginger contains 1 to 2% volatile oil, 5 to 8% pungent principle, resinous mass and starch. Volatile oil is responsible for the aromatic smell and consists of zingiberene 6% sesquiterpenes hydrocarbon zingiber a sesquiterpenes alcohol and besaabolene. Gingirol is a yellow pungent oily liquid and yields gingirone a ketone and aliphatic aldehyde. Shagaol is formed by loss of water from gingerol. Shagaol and gingirone are less pungent. The pungency of gingerol and ginger is destroyed, when boiled with 5% potassium hydroxide or other alkalis. Ginger consists of Starch 40 to 60%, fat 10%, Fibber’s 5%, Inorganic material 6%. Ginger oil is composed of hydrocarbons, oxygenated mono terpenes, and phenyl propanoids. Aroma and flavour are the main characteristics of ginger. The flavour, pungency and pharmacological action is exerted by phenolic ketones of oleo-resin.

Uses:

Ginger is carminative, pungent, stimulant, used widely for indigestion, stomach-ache, malaria and fevers. It is chiefly used to cure diseases due to morbidity of Kaph and Vata. Ginger with lime juice and rock salt increases appetite and stimulates the secretion of gastric juices. It is said to be used for abdominal pain, anorexia, arthritis, atonic dyspepsia, bleeding, cancer, chest congestion, chicken pox, cholera, chronic bronchitis, cold extremities, colic, colitis, common cold, cough, cystic fibrosis, diarrhoea, difficulty in breathing, dropsy, fever, flatulent, indigestion, disorders of gallbladder, hyperacidity, hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia, indigestion, morning sickness, nausea, rheumatism, sore throat, throat ache, stomach ache and vomiting. Ginger forms an important constituent of many pharmacopoeia Ayurvedic formulations (Misra, 1969; Nadakarni, 1993). You may prepare ginger tincture using a proper dilution. Primary areas of use are digestive problems, asthma and complaints related to urinary tract. Drink it continuously or when necessary, by adding 10 to 15 drops into half a tablespoon of lukewarm water for 2 or 3 times a day. In order to prepare ginger tea, a 2.5cm tall fresh ginger root is sliced or used in powdered form. Next, half a dessertspoon of ginger refined using a grinder is added to a full glass of cold water, heated up to the boiling degree in a mild temperature, then boiled in a mild temperature for 5 to 6 min and drained.⁷ If necessary, a cup of freshly brewed tea is sweetened by squeezing juice of half a lemon and adding honey; and drinks it before it cools down. There is no inconvenience in drinking 1 or 2 cups of freshly brewed tea a day. The tea is preferred especially in complaints related to digestive system. Ginger is used as an aromatic, a carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent. Ginger oil is used in mouthwashes. Ginger powder has been reported to be effective in motion sickness. It has been suggested that adsorbent, aromatic and carminative properties of ginger on G.I tract cause adsorption of toxins and acid enhanced gastric motility. These may have probably blocking effects of G.I reactions and nausea.⁸

Patenting and regulatory requirements of herbal drugs:

Patent:

A patent is a set of monopoly rights given to a patentee by the government that excludes others from making, using, selling, or importing particular inventions for a limited period of time. The person who has been granted a patent is called a patentee. A patent can be granted for an invention which may be related to any process or product. The word “Invention” has been defined under the Patents Act 1970 as amended from time to time. “An invention means a new product or purpose having industrial application and involving an inventive step”. A patent may be granted only for an invention in respect of which the following conditions are satisfied: The invention is new. Involves an inventive step. Is capable of industrial application or utility. The purpose of this system is to encourage inventions by promoting their protection and invention so as to contribute to develop industries which in turn provides better utility to the society.⁹

Procedure for patent:

1. Filling an application

2. Examination of application

3. Opposition /Claim for patent

4. Granting and patent seali.

1. Filling an application for patient:

A patent application can be made on prescribed application form. This can be obtained from Patent office, the applicant has to furnish the following information. Title, name, address and nationality of inventor. Specification: Giving the details of invention. Claims: Definition and scope of invention.

2. Examination of application:

Patent office examines patent applications with respect to usefulness, nature of claim and weather the patent has been filed earlier.

3. Opposition of any claim of patent:

A three-month time is given for any application before granting and sealing of the patent.

4. Granting and sealing of patent:

In case of no opposition or clearly satisfaction of all the objections by the applicant, the patent is granted by the patent office and published in the official gazette. A patent can be Kept alive by paying an annual fee within date which increases the age of the patent. It can be renewed after its expiry.

Farmer’s Right:

Farmer’s rights are a precondition for the maintenance of crop genetic diversity, which forms the basis of all food and agriculture production in the world. Farmer’s right enables the farmers to maintain and develop crop genetic resources and recognize and reward them for their vital contribution to the global pool of genetic resources. This is the right given to farmers for the improvement, conservation and availability of plant genetic resources so that farmers need not go to the breeder every time. The protection of plant variety and farmers right act 2001(PPV&FR act) is an act of parliament of India that was enacted to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties. The rights of the farmers and plant breeders are to encourage the development and cultivation of new varieties of plants. The PPV&FR act 2001 was enacted to grant intellectual property rights to plant breeders, researchers and farmers who have developed any new plant variety. Breeder’s Right:

Plant Breeder’s Right (PBR) or Plant Variety Rights (PVR) are granted to the breeder of anew variety of plant. o These rights give the breeder exclusive control over the propagating materials and harvested materials of a new variety for a number of years. With these rights, the breeder can become the marketer of an exclusive variety, or can obtain the license for other varieties. A variety should be new, distinct, uniform andstable to qualify for these exclusive rights. The PBR is granted by International Union for the protection of new varieties of plants (UPOV).

Bioprospecting:

Biodiversity prospecting involves exploration, extraction and screening of biological diversity and indigenous knowledge for commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources. Bioprospecting or biodiversity prospecting is the systematic search for biochemical and genetic information in nature, in order to develop commercially valuable products for pharmaceutical, agricultural, cosmetic and other applications. Bioprospecting is the process of discovery and commercialization of new products based on biological resources. The search for plants and animal’s species from which medicinal drugs and other commercially valuable compounds can be obtained. The investigation of the living things to see how they can be commercially useful to human beings. Between 1956 and 1976, the U. S. National Cancer Institute screened 35,000 plants and animals for anti-cancer compounds. But this program failed to identify a greater number of new anti-cancer agents, and thus was ended in 1981.

Biopiracy:

The term Biopiracy was coined by “Patmooney” to describe a practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous people is used by others for profit without authorization or compensation to the indigenous people themselves. For examples, when bio prospector draws an indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant which is later patented by medical companies without recognizing the fact that that and knowledge is not new or invented by the patentee and depriving the indigenous community to the rights to commercial exploitation of the technology that they themselves had developed. Under US patent law, any person who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, manufacture or composition of matter or any new and useful improvement is eligible to obtain patient. In general, four requirements have to be satisfied to quality for a patent which are as follows. The subject matter must be patentable. The invention must be novel, the invention must have same utility or usefulness. The invention must be devious.¹¹

Case studies of production of some important medicinal and aromatic plants:

Case studies of neem:

The neem tree is a tropical evergreen tree native to India and is also found in other south east countries. The seeds, bark and leaves contain compounds with proven antiseptic, antiviral, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, anti-fungal properties. In 1971, US timber importer ‘Robert Harson’ observed that the trees usefulness in India and began importing neem seeds to his company headquarters. He conducted safety and performance test of neem. Three years later he sold his invention to the US Department of agricultural and Multinational chemical corporation WR Grace and co. In 1972 the WR Grace and co secured its right to the formula that used the emulsion from the neem trees, seeds to make a powerful fungicide. In applying for the patient, the company had argued that it had used an extract of the trees, seed to make a ew fungicide but the Indians claim that its patent was not sufficiently novel as Indian farmers have used this fungicide for decade. The Indians and members of the green party in the European union opposed the patent because they believed that the rights of the poor farmers in developing countries will be harmed. The neem patent became the first to challenge European and US patents on grounds of biopiracy. The Indian scientists argued that the Indians have known the medicinal properties of neem long back. The European Patent Office EPO accepted the arguments offered by Indian scientists and rejected the order of the US patent office to award the patent to WR Grace and co. The victory is a result of four yearlong effort by the research foundations for science technology and environment.

CASE STUDY OF CURCUMA:

Turmeric is a tropical herb grown in east India. Turmeric powder has a deep distinct colour and bitter taste. It is used as dye, cooking ingredient, litmus in chemical tests and for medicinal purpose. A United States patent 1995, specifically for the use of turmeric in wound healing. Two years later, a complaint was filed by India’s council of scientific and industrial research (CSIR). CSIR argued that turmeric has been used in India for thousands of years for healing wounds and rashes and therefore the patent on its medicinal use was not a novel invention. United States patent and trade mark office (USPTO) investigated the validity of the patent. In 1997 despite an appeal made by the patent holders, the USPTO upheld the CSIR objection and cancelled the patent due to lack of novelty.¹²

CONCLUSION:

There is an urgent need to adopt scientific measure for their cultivation, long term preservation, protection and sustainable utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants. Further, the development programme on medicinal and aromatic plants is required to be monitored by quality analysis of the produce in order to ensure materials of uniform quality in term of alkaloid, essential oil and other chemical constitution for which these plants are valuable in the market.

REFRENCES:

1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277059910_A_Comparison_of_Cultivation_and_Wild_Co llection_of_Medicinal_and_Aromatic_Plants_Under_Sustainability_Aspects

2. https://pharmabookbank.files.wordpress.com/2019/0 3/14.2.pharmacognos y -b y -bir e n -shahavinash-se t h -1 .p d f http://jnkvv.org/PDF/AERC/Stud y -93.pd f

3. Textbook of Pharmacognosy and photochemistry by Biren Shah and A. K. Seth. Page no.72-73

4. A Textbook of Pharmacognosy and photochemistry- II by Atul Kabra, Dr. Parveen Kumar Ashok, Sanjay Setia. (PV Publications). Page no 144-148

5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC496 7 523/#:~:text=of%20medicinal%20plant s-, In%20situ%20conservation,conditions%20%5B22%2 C %2029%5 D

6. A Textbook of Pharmacognosy and photochemistry by Dr. Kuntal Das (Nirali Prakashan) Page no. 2.32 – 2.33

7. A Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 2 by Dr.K.Prabhu, Dr. G. Arunachalam (Thakur Publications) Page no. 149-151.

8. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biology/resins/ginge r -sourc e s -cultivatio n -anduses/4977 9

9. https://www.glocaluniversity.edu.in/files/eContent/eBpharm/Herbal%20Drug%20Techn ology.p d f

10. A Textbook of Herbal Drug Technology by Dr. Zeeshan Afsar (PV Publications) Page no. 79-81 11.

11. A Textbook of Herbal Drug Technology by Dr. G. Arunachalam, Dr. V.E. Ida Christill, Dr. Prashant Kumar (Thakur Publications) Page no. 224 – 229

12. A Textbook of Herbal Drug Technology by Dr. V.M. Shinde, Mrs. K.S. Bodas-Yadav Page no 10.20 – 10.21.

Received on 10.01.2023 Modified on 31.01.2023

Asian J. Research Chem. 2023; 16(2):184-191.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-4150.2023.00030